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TECHNICAL REPORT
NATICK / TR-82 / 019

Food for
U.S. Manned Space Flight

BY M.V. KLICKA, NLABS
AND M.C. SMITH, JR., NASA

APRIL 1982

UNITED STATES ARMY NATICK
RESEARCH 8c DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
NATICK. MASSACHUSETTS 01760

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE; DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED.

FOOD ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

Citation of trade names in this report does not
constitute an official Indorsement or approval of the
use of such items.

Destroy this report vhen no longer needed. Do not
return it to the originator.

UNCLASSIFIED

StCUWiTV CtASSiriCATtOM OF TMII ^AOC fmtmt Dmm fcilfO

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

>. NCPONT NUMBCK

NATICKn’R-82/019

TITLE faiB

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BEFORC COMPLETINQ FORM

1. RCCIPICMrt CATALOO NUMEER

S. TYRE OP REPORT A PERIOD COVERED

FOOD FOR US MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

T. AUTMORfil)

Mary V. Klicka, US Army Natick Research and Development
Laboratories, Natick, MA

Malcolm C. Smith. NASA, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center,

Hoiicfon Ty

». f^CnromilNO ONOANIZATION NAMC AND AOOREtS

US Army Natick Research and Development Laboratories
Kansas ^reet
Natick. MA 01760

II. CONTROLLINO OPPICE NAME AND ADDRESS

US Army Natick Research and Development Laboratories
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Natick^ MA 01

. MONIToRINO AOEnCY name a ADDRESSflf mifttmt Inm CanCrofltaS Otllcm)

Technical

A. PERPORMINO ORO. REPORT NUMDI

NATICK/TR-82/019

s. contract or orant numdert*;

10. PROCRAM element. PROJECT, TASK

NASA MIPR T-9371A
2314804000

12. report date

Aoril 19

IS. number op pages
102

IB. SECURITY CLASS, (ol Ihia npott)

Unclassified

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Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

17. distribution statement (el ate ebeuect entered In Sleek 20, II ditlerent Item Report)

IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

The research described in this paper was performed for the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) under NDPR No. T— 9371A. However, this effort benefitted from
and drew heavily on all work carried out over the years under the DoD Food RDT& Engineering
Program.

19. key words (Conflnuft on rovoroo oltfo li nmemmtmy mtd IdttUiy by btoek mmbmr)

SPACE FOODS MENUS FOOD SYSTEMS APOLLO

SPACE FEEDING FOOD PACKAGING UNITED STATES SKYLAB

ASTRONAUTS MANNED SPACECRAFT GEMINI SOYUZ

SPACE CREWS SPACE FLIGHT MERCURY APOLLO-SOYUZ

FOOD SYSTEMS
UNITED STATES
GEMINI
MERCURY

APOLLO

SKYLAB

SOYUZ

APOLLO-SOYUZ

20» AVSK^ACT fConffauo oa rovoroo oMM U nmemmmmry mad idmaiity by btoek mmbmr)

The food systems which have supported the U.S. manned space flight programs have
provided safe, nutritious, acceptable, and convenient food, compatible with the mission. The
food systems which supported the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo Flights and the Skylab and
Apollo— Soyuz Missions are briefly described. Also the engineering operational and biological
constraints which were imposed in these food systems by the space vehicle and environment
are discusse(L.v The appendix. Table A-1, provides an inventory of the foods used by NASA

/1\

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tCCUMlTV CUASStFICATlOW OR THIS MAOC (When Data Siiormdl)

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20. ABSTRACT (continued)

from Project Mercury (the final flight) through the Apollo-Soyuz Test Flight. Date on portion
weight, ingredients, processing procedures, water for reconstitution, and flight usage are incluM
in this table. An addendum covers the foods approved for the Shuttle — Operational Flight
Test (OFT) use along with the standard menu.

■nTIS 6KAM
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1 Unannounced

Justification

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PREFACE

As a result of experience gained in the development of advanced systems for feeding both
the Army and the Air Force under stress, the food research and development organization
of the US Army Natick Research and Development Laboratories (NLABS) was called upon
to design and implement the feeding requirements for the Project Mercury flights of 1961—1063
and to continue developing foods for subsequent Gemini, Apollo, and Apollo*Soyuz flights
and to provide technical assistance in preparing the Skylab food specifications.

Designing space food involved more than developing acceptable nutritious food.
Consideration had to be given to wei^t and volume, the nonavailability of refrigeration,
requirements for short-term exposure to temperatures exceeding 55° C, the lack of cooking
facilities and concomitant need for ready-to-eat or simple-to-prepare foods, and the fact that
the food was to be consumed in a weightless environment. These requirements indicated a
need for highly stable "convenience" foods.

Toward this end six different categories of food were developed by the Food Engineering
Laboratory of NLABS, namely: semisolid foods which were packaged in aluminum tubas arxi
used on Project Mercury, bite-sized dehydrated foods to be eaten dry; precooked dehydrated
foods to be reconstituted before consumption; wet foods thermally stabilized in flexible
packages; intermediate moisture foods and radappertized foods (i.e., foods preserved by ionizing
radiation). Of the 216 different food comportents which have been included in the 25 U.S.
space flights launched since Project Mercury, 102 were developed by NLABS.

NLABS has kept NASA informed of developments in the new lightweight food and
packaging being used in or developed for military rations. Often prototype products of special
interest to NASA have been made available to NASA for actual space flight menu use tefore
development for the military is completed. In fact, 44 different military ration items were
offered for NASA's consideration for possible Apollo-Soyuz Test Program (ASTP) use. Of
these, only five products were from a standard ration in the supply system — these were
precooked freeze dehydrated entrees from the Long Range Petrol Food Packet.

Most of the foods offered NASA for ASTP were components of the newest combat ration,
the Individual Ready-to-Eat Meal. The flat shape of the flexibly packaged food components
of the Individual Ready-to-Eat Meal and their reduced packaging weight made them particularly
attractive for ASTP use. The astronauts must have been just as pleased by their flavor and
overall quality as were the military personnel who consumed them during service testing. Of
the 27 military ration components used on the ASTP, 21 are components of the Individual
Ready-to-Eat Meal.

Two compressed cooked vegetable bars — sweet peas and leaf spinach -- also made their
debut on space flight menus on the ASTP. These products are not novel to military cooks
as compressed peas are in routine procurement (FSN 8915—00—401—8480) and compressed
spinach has been service tested by all four Service. The single portion bar, however, is new.
When packaged in a "feeder" and rehydrated, the spinach bar will expand to a full portion
of leaf spinach - 11 times larger in size than the compressed bar. The pea bar is slightly
larger than the spinach bar since the volume ratio of compressed peas' to uncompressed
reconstituted round peas is only 4 to 1.

Individual servings of irradiation sterilized meat — beef steak, ham, corned beef and
smoked sliced turkey — were specially produced at NLABS for the ASTP flight. Irradiation
sterilization is entirely new method of food preservation which was being pioneered by the
military as a new food preservation process. This is also an excellent example of “spin off"
to the space program of a new military sponsored technology not yet approved for military
ration use. Of course the flexibly packaged irradiation sterilized products that were supplied
NASA were produced and tested thorou^ly against very rigid criteria for safety, acceptability
and package integrity by the US Army Natick Research and Development Laboratories. The
1975 ASTP flight was not the first time that NASA had expressed its confidence in irradiation
sterilized foods. Flexibly packa^ radappertized ham (ham sterilized by ionizing radiation)
was first used on Apollo 17. It was also carried as a contingency food on Skylab.

Many of the Individual Ready-to-Eat Meal components and diree of the radappertized
meats used on the ASTP have been furnished NASA for use on the initial Shuttle flight
menus — beef steak, corned beef, and smoked turkey slices. All three were included on the
first two Shuttle Operational Flight Test (OFT) menus.

The research described in this paper was performed for the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) under NOPR No. T— 9371 A. However, this effort bertefitted from
and drew heavily on all work carried out over the years under the DoD Food RDT& Ertgineering
Program.

This paper is one of two providing information on the foods included on US Space fll^
menus (1963 through 1975) and provides details on formulations, portion sizes, water
requirements, and menu use for 216 space foods. A second paper will provide available
nutritional data on each space food.

Acknowledgements

The authors are indebted to Edmund M. Powers, Research Microbiolgist, NLABS, for his
contribution to the Microbiology Section, Dr. Norman D. Heidelbaugh, COL USAF (Ret.),
now at Texas A&M University, for his helpful comments; and to Rita M. Rapp, Shuttle Support
Branch, NASA LBJ Space Center, and Connie R. Stadler, Technology Inc., Houston, Texas
for their assistance in completing Table A— 1. Our appreciation is also expressed to Jackie
Tardif, Joyce Barrett, Barbara Leston, and Judy Tamburro for the exceptionally good typing
they provided.

Addendum

Work on this paper was completed before the food systems for the Shuttle Flights were
developed. Therefore, an addendum has been added at the end of the paper to briefly describe
both the interim food system which NASA is using on the first four Shuttle Flights, and the
new Shuttle food system which will be included on fifth Shuttle mission — the first Operational
Mission (OPS).

Table of Contents

Preface

Introduction

Food Systems for Mercury Flights
The Food Systems for Gemini Flights
The Food Systems for Apollo Flights
The Food System for Skylab Missions
The Food System for Apollo-Soyuz Mission
Microbiological Constraints

Problems and Findings of the Various Space Flight Food Experiments

Inventory of U.S. Space Foods

Conclusions

Addendum. The Food Systems for Shuttle Flights
List of References
Supplemental References

Appendix: Foods and Food Supplements Included on U.S. Space Flight

Menus

Index of Space Foods

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FOOD FOR U.S. MANNED SPACE FLIGHT
Introduction

The food systems which have supported U.S. manned space flight programs have provided
safe, nutritious, acceptable, and convenient food, compatible with the mission. A variety of
engineering, operational, and biological constraints have been imposed on the food systems
by the space vehicle and environment. The Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Sky lab programs
have each had distinctly different food system requirements and with the increased technical
sophistication of the flight hardware and mission objectives, the technical sophistication of
the supporting food system has also increased. Few background data or experiences were
available to support food product development; therefore, every flight was a continuing
experiment on what could be eaten and developed to advance the overall technology.

Food Systems for Mercury Flights

The Mercury flight food systems were limited in scope and purpose. The flights were
of short duration, and eating in most cases was accomplished to obtain gross information as
to the effect of null gravity on food ingestion and digestion and to ascertain the types of
food and packaging which would be applicable to longer duration space flight.

Semi-solid, sterile, tubed foods, fruits, and meat combinations packaged in collapsible
aluminum tubes, adaptations of products developed for feeding Air Force pilots flying at high
altitudes, were the initial " space" foods.* John Glenn (Mercury 6) was the first astronaut
to carry food aboard. He consumed 119.5 grams of pureed applesauce (78.7 percent water —
approximately 80 kcal [335 kJ]). Beef and vegetables (85 percent water — approximately
60 kcal [271 kJ]), beef and gravy (76 percent water — 130 kcal [544 kJ]) and pureed peaches
were also considered acceptable and made available for some Mercury flights. Schirra (Mercury
8) consumed both beef and vegetables and pureed peaches on his flight.^ Supplementing the
semi-solid foods were special dry bite-size foods. The first items supplied were compressed
cocoa malted milk tablets. Each round tablet was 2.5 cm in diameter, weighed about 5 gm
and supplied 20 kcal (84 kJ). The tablets were packaged in a tube made from kraft with
a tear-open string. Several varieties of dessert-type, bite-size cubes (1.9 cm) under development
for longer duration Air Force aerospace missions, were selected by astronaut Carpenter (Mercury
7). Designed to withstand storage at 27° C these cubes softened and even melted during his
Mercury 7 flight. This prompted the development of bite-size foods including freeze-dried

' H.A. Hollender, Development of food items to meet Air Force requirements for space travel.
Technical Documentation Report AMRL— TDR 64—38, Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio, 1964.

^E.L. Michel, Preparation, handling and storage of foods for present space projects, in
Conference on Nutrition in Space and Related Waste Problems, NASA SP-70, 1964, 57-63.

Tubed foods were consumed on Mercury Flights through a
polystyrene extension tube called a "pontube"

Menu for the final Mercury flight (Mercury 9) consisted of bite-size foods and four rehydratables.

products capable of meeting the more stringent environmental requirements of the Mercury
programs which included tempering for three hours at 43°C. Crude fiber content of bite-size
foods was reduced to negligible amounts to improve energy density. Also, it was anticipated
that the low fiber content of the diet would reduce fecal bulk and the frequency of defecation.

Astronaut Cooper (Mercury 9) selected 10 different types of bite-size foods (a total of
57 bites) and four rehydratable foods (dehydrated products which required addition of water
prior to consumption) - orange and grape juice powders and freeze-dried beef pot roast and
chicken and gravy. He actually consumed only 696 kcal (2912 kJ) of the 2369 kcal (9912
kJ) available to him at launch.^ Because of problems with the food container and water
dispenser during the flight, he was unable to properly reconstitute the freeze-dried foods and
could only eat 1/3 of a package of beef pot roast. Reportedly he tired of the dry bite-size
foods which also contributed to his low calorie intake. Dietary control of defecation during
Project Mercury was successful; however, it was learned that in flight food and water ingestion
must be scheduled in mission timelines along with other activities.* The experience gained
during Project Mercury in food packaging and in-flight handling led to the evolution of the
more sophisticated Gemini and Apollo food systems.

Mercury food packaging was experimental and transient. Aluminum tubes were used for
the semi-solid foods; kraft tubes, plexiglass dispensers and three-ply laminates of clear plastic
films were used for various food items.* No food stowage compartment was provided in Mercury
spacecraft, therefore, the food supply was included among other necessities in the astronaut's
ditty bag.*

The bite-size food concept provided for the Mercury flights was handicapped because of
the 43°C three-hour stability requirement which resulted in the need to employ a high melting
point (58°C) fat for a coating. These coatings were applied in an effort to control the formation
of free-floating crumbs during flight. The coatings proved to be unpalatable and digestibility
trials demonstrated that these coatings were poorly absorbed in the gut and could result in
a steatorrhea.

*A.D. Catterson, E.P. McCutcheon, H.A. Minners, and R.A. Pollard, Aeromedical Observations,
in Mercury Project Summary Including Results of the Fourth Manned Orbital Flight May 15 and

16, 1963, NASA SP-45, 1963, 315.

*C.A. Berry, Aeromedical Preparations, in Mercury Project Summary Including Results of
the Fourth Manned Orbital Flight May 15 and 16, 1963, NASA SP-45, 1963, 203.

*E.A. Nebesky, G.L. Schulz, and F.J. Rubinate, Packaging for space flights. Activities Report,

17, 32-36, 1965.

*P.A. Lachance, Development of stored food and water systems. Environmental Biology and
Medicine, Vol. 1,pp 205— 228, 1971, with Appendix A — Nutrient composition of space flight
foods, M.V. Klicka and M.H. Thomas.

The Food Systems for Gemini Flights

The first manned flight of the Gemini program, Gemini 3, lasted less than five hours,
but four experimental meals were aboard to test a new, more complex, all dehydrated food
system. The longer planned length of the subsequent missions (2 to 14 days) not only required
a much more sophisticated approach but also required careful menu planning to conform to
spacecraft stowage, weight, and volume constraints. The nutrient content of the foods and
dietary intake were significant parameters of mission success.

The original Gemini food system concept was based on four meals per man per day and
was followed only for the four-day mission of Gemini 4. The more critical stowage constraints
of Gemini 5 (8 days) and Gemini 7 (14 days) necessitated minimizing food volume, and the
consequent reduction permitted only three meals a day. Preferred by the astronauts, this
three-meal pattern was adopted for the balance of the Gemini flights and for Apollo and Skylab.
Two-, three-, and four-day menu cycles were used on Gemini flights. Except on the Gemini 4
and Gemini 8 missions, the Gemini crew members were provided identical menus which
permitted overwrapping of meal pairs. On Gemini 4 and Gemini 8, astronaut preference
adjustments necessitated component changes and the overwrapping of a number of individual
meals.

Extensive testing at the Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force
Base and the School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks Air Force Base ascertained that diets
composed exclusively of dehydrated food could be highly acceptable, digestible, efficiently
utilized and capable of maintaining positive nitrogen balance.’"* * In these studies the
technology of freeze-dehydration as a means of food preservation (pioneered for military ration
use) was employed to assure acceptable products which would reconstitute in the ambient
temperature water available aboard Gemini. These were the first human feeding trials which
verified that the feeding of freeze-dehydrated foods was physiologically equivalent to the feeding
of routine diets. These studies also verified the acceptability of such foods using ambient
temperature water. On Gemini only ambient temperature water was available.

’J.E. Vanderveen, K.J. Smith, E.W. Speckmann, G. Kitzes, and A.E. Prince, Protein, energy,
and water requirements of man under simulated space stresses, in Conference on Nutrition
in Space and Related Waste Problems, NASA SP-70, 1964, 373-378.

*E.W. Speckmann, K.J. Smith, J.E. Vanderveen, G.M. Homer, and D.W. Dunco, Nutritional
acceptability of a dehydrated diet, Aerosp. Med., 36, 256—260, 1965.

’K-J. Smith, Nutritional evaluation of a precooked dehydrated and bite-size compressed food
diet as a sole source of nutriment for six weeks, AMRL— TR— 66— 3, 30 pp., 1966.

'"K.J. Smith, E.W. Speckmann, P.A. Lachance, and D.W. Dunco, Nutritional evaluation of
a precooked dehydrated diet for possible use in aerospace systems. Food Technol., 20, 101—105,
1966.

Each Gemini meal contained from four to seven servings of food. These were provided
in bite-size form (as compressed 1 .9-cm cubes or as freeze-dried rectangulars, usually 2.5 cm
by 2.9 cm by 1.9 cm high) designed for direct consumption or as rehydratables. The bite-size
foods included meats, bread, dessert and confection items. A few bite-size foods, e.g. bacon
squares and fruit cake were high enough in moisture content to qualify as intermediate moisture
foods - foods in which '.tability is achieved primarily by adjusting water activity.

The number of bi';a-size units included in a serving varied in accordance with astronaut
preferences and by mission — being either 4, 6 or 8.

The rehydratable foods included dry mixes and freeze-dried products which reconstituted
to familiar beverages, puddings, soyps, entrees, fruits and vegetables. Approximately 726 grams
of packaged food providing up to 29(X) kcal (12,000 kJ) were provided for each crew member
each day. The volume provided for food stowage was restricted to 2130 cubic centimeters
(cm^) per crew member per day. The three meal per day diet was designed to provide 16-17
percent total calories from protein, 30—32 percent from fat and 50—54 percent from
carbohydrate.” The uniform shape, high caloric density and flavor variety of the bite-size

* ‘ B.J. Katchman, G.M. Homer, and D. Dunco, The biochemical, physiological and metabolic
evaluation of human subjects wearing pressure suits and on a diet of precooked dehydrated
foods, AMRL-TR-67-8, 51 pp, 1967.

”C.A. Linder and V.R. Must, The effect of repetitive feedings on the acceptability of selected
metabolic diets, AMRL-TR-66-75, 8 pp, 1967.

”N.D. Heidelbaugh, J.E. Vanderveen, M.V. Klicka, and M.J. O'Hara, Study of man during
a 56-day exposure at 258 mm Hg total pressure: VIII. Observations on feeding bite-size
foods, Aerosp. Med., 37, 583—590, 1966.

' ^ J.E. Vanderveen, N.D. Heidelbaugh, and M.J. O'Hara, Study of man during a 56-day exposure
to an oxygen-helium atmosphere at 258 mm Hg total pressure IX, Nutritional evaluation of
feeding bite-size foods, Aerosp. Med., 37, 591—594, 1966.

”R.E. Chapin, R.S. Kronenberg, M.J. O'Hara, D.C. Loper and J.E. Vanderveen, Nutritional
evaluation of foods developed for aerospace operations I. A diet composed of bite-size and
rehydratable foods. Presented at the 38th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Aerospace Medical
Association, Washington, DC, April 1967.

'*M.J. O'Hara, R.E. Chapin, N.H. Heidelbaugh, and J.E. Vanderveen, Aerospace feeding:
Acceptability of bite-size and dehydrated foods, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc.. 51, 246—250, 1967.

”C.S. Huber, M.C. Smith, and M.V. Klicka, Space foods, in Health and Food, G.G. Birch,
L.F. Green, and L.G. Plaskett, Eds., Halsted Press, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1972,
130-151.

BREADS

SANDWICHES

MEATS

CHEESE & CRACKERS

BACON

CONFECTIONS

CEREALS

BROWNIES

DATE FRUITCAKE

ICE CREAM

PEANUT CUBES

ORANGE

STRAWBERRY

Bite size space foods — Gemini

VEGETABLES

Rehydratable space foods — Gemini. The tablet attached to each
rehydratable package is an anti-microbial agent — Squinolinol sulphate —
used for waste stabilization.

foods made them ideally suited for the engineering requirements of space flight. However,
they were less well liked than the rehydratable products due in part to their texture and
dryness.'"'” Thus, all Gemini menus utilized a combination of bite-size and rehydratable
fo^s with rehydratables supplying at least 50 percent, and as high as 68 percent, of the total
number of servings of food supplied.*®"*®

Frequently difficulties in the handling, preparation, or consumption of the foods used
were surfaced only through in-flight experience. Every effort was made to solve the problems
before the food was offered again.**'*’ However, this dynamic process resulted in variable
product formulations and corresponding changes in nutrient content. For example, a number
of bite-size foods had to be altered to control crumb problems. Problems occurring in Project

'"R.A. Nanz, E.L. Michel, and P.A. Lachance, Evolution of a space feeding coricept for Project
Gemini, NASA TM X-51697, 1964.

”R.A. Nanz, E.L. Michel, and P.A. Lachance, Evolution of space feeding concepts during
the Mercury and Gemini space programs. Food Technol., 21, 1596—1602, 1967.

*®M.V. Klicka, H.A. Hollender, and P.A. Lachance, Foods for Astronauts, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc.,
51, 238-245, 1967.

*'P.A. Lachance and C.A. Berry, Luncheon in space, Nutr. Today, 2 (2), 2-11, 1967.

**R.A. Nanz, P.A. Lachance, and M.V. Klicka, Food consumption on Gemini IV, V and VII
missions, NASA Technical Memorandum, NASA TM X— 58010, October 1967.

**H.A. Hollender, M.V. Klicka, and P.A. Lachance, Space feeding: Meeting the challenge.
Cereal Sci. Today, 13, 44—48, 1968.

**M.V. Klicka, P.A. Lachance and H.A. Hollender, Space feeding. Activities Report 20, 53—72
1968.

*®P.A. Lachance, M.V. Klicka, and H.A. Hollender, Space feeding: Cereal products utilized
in the US manned space program. Cereal Sci. Today, 13, 49—54, 70, 1968.

'‘S.E. Stone, Gemini flight food qualification testing: requirements and problems. Activities
Report, 17, 37-43, 1965.

*’H.A. Hollender, M.V. Klicka, and M.C. Smith, Food technology problems related to space
feeding, in COSPAR Life Science and Space Research, VIII, North — Hollarxf Publ. Co., 1970
265-279.

Mercury had resulted in the routine application of coatings to the bites to minimize the hazard
of crumbs and greasiness or stickiness. Attempts at correction of the problems with these
coatings resulted in five different coating changes for some bite-size foods (e.g., sandwiches).
These coatings remained in the space food inventory throughout Project Gemini. An in-flight
biomedical experiment measuring calcium and nitrogen balance was conducted on the
fourteen-day mission of Gemini 7. The primary objective of this experiment was to obtain
data on the effects of space flight on the skeletal and muscular systems.^ In support
of this study, fruit flavored beverages and applesauce on the Gemini 7 menus were fortified
with calcium lactate to assure the desired supply of approximately 1 gram of calcium per
day. Generally 1.1 gram of calcium lactate (201 mg of calcium) was added to a 21-gram
(dry weight) serving of beverage powder or 35-gram serving of applesauce. The use of beverages
fortified with calcium lactate continued throughout the remaining Gemini missions and for
all Apollo missions.

All Gemini food was vacuum-packaged in a clear, 4-ply flexible plastic laminate comprised
of an inner and outer layer of polyethylene with fluorohalocarbon and polyester layers between.
The rehydratable packages contained a one-way spring loaded valve which was opened by an
interfacing water dispenser for rehydration. At the opposite end of the package was the feeding
tube comprised of polyethylene tubing. The astronaut consumed the meal through this feeding
tube by squeezing the food into his mouth. The meal overwrap was a polyolefin-aluminum
foil-polyester film.

The Food Systems for Apollo Flights

The initial Apollo Food System was based on the dehydrated foods perfected for the
Gemini program; however, greater attention was focused on astronaut preferences which resulted
in greater menu variation. Also hot water (65° ± 5°C) was available for food rehydration

^*See reference 6.

^’See reference 22.

Mack, G.P. Vose, F.B. Vogt, and P.A. Lachance, Experiment M— 6, bone demineralization,
in Gemini Midprogram Conference, NASA SP— 121, 1966, 407—415.

G.D. Whedon, L. Lutwak, W.F. Neuman, and P.A. Lachance, Experiment M— 7, calcium and
nitrogen balance, in Gemini Midprogram Conference, NASA SP— 121, 1966, 417—421.

^ ^ J.M. Reid, L. Lutwak, and G.D. Whedon, Dietary control in the metabolic studies of Gemini 7
space flight, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., 53, 342—347, 1968.

^^L. Lutwak, G.D. Whedon, P.A. Lachance, J.M. Reid, and H. Lipscomb, Mineral electrolyte
and nitrogen balance studies of the Gemini VM 14-day orbital space flight, J. Clin.
Endocrinol. Metab., 29, 1140—1156, 1969.

MEAL B

MEAL C

MEAL A

2-MAN MEAL OVERWRAPS

Project Gemini 2-man meal overwraps

APOLLO MEALi

TOASTED BREAD CUBES

SAUSAGE PATTIES

PEACHES

CHEWING GUM

ORANGE DRINK

SUGAR COATED CORNFLAKES

An early Apollo flight meal

, FRANKFURTERS ^

BEEF & GRAVY »

Thermostabilized meats — popular with Apollo astronauts

Thermostabilized wet meat product —
introduced on Apollo 8 flight menu

"Spoon-bowl" package used for
rehydratables following Apollo 8
flight

in the Command Module. Water in the Lunar Module was at ambient cabin temperature.
The long interval (almost two years) which occurred between the last Gemini mission (Gemini
12) and the first manned Apollo mission (Apollo 7) due to the spacecraft fire in January
1967 allowed time for improvements in product formulations and resulted in the development
of an increased variety of both bite-size and rehydratable foods. USAF C— 135 aircraft flying
Keplarian trajectories to simulate brief periods of null gravity were used to verify that a
conventional spoon could be used to consume most foods in null gravity environntents.’* The
use of a spoon began with Apollo 8 with the introduction of flexibly packaged thermostabilized
foods — called "wet packs" — to the Apollo menus. The packages for rehydratable foods,
excepting beverages, were subsequently redesigned to adapt to the more normal use of a spoon.
With each subsequent Apollo mission, the menu variety was improved and increased.
Intermediate moisture fruits were introduced on Apollo 9. Intermediate moisture confections
were added on later missions. Fresh bread was provided on Apollo 10 when NASA, for the
first time, deviated from its requirement for full vacuum-packaging and allowed packaging under
a partial pressure of nitrogen. Sandwich spreads (thermostabilized) initially packaged in
aluminum tubes and later in rigid aluminum cans accompanied the bread. To control mold
on the fresh bread furnished on Apollo missions 12 through 17, the bread was produced using
irradiated flour (flour exposed to 50,000 rad of cobalt gamma irradiation).^^ Additionally,
for the last three Apollo missions the bread was given a second post baking irradiation treatment
(also 50,000 rad). Flexibly packaged radappertized ham (ham sterilized by ionizing radiation)
was included on the final Apollo 17 menus.^^

A new approach to menu planning was accomplished with the Apollo 11 mission in that
the crew was allowed the flexibility to plan some of their menus in flight. Approximately
half of the packaged food supplied was overwrapped into planned one-man meals. The remaining
foods were stowed loose, pantry style, in their primary package without assembling
(overwrapping) into meals. This gave the crew the option of varying their meal selections.^''

^^R.L. Flentge, A.C. Grim, F.F. Doppelt, and J.E. Vanderveen, How conventional eating
methods were found feasible for spacecraft. Food TechnoL, 25, 51-54, 1971.

^^T.E, Hartung, L.B. Bullerman, R.G. Arnold, and N.D. Heidelbaugh, Application of low dose
irradiation to a fresh bread system for space flights, J. Food Sci., 38, 129—132, 1973.

^‘M.V. Klicka, Space foods and their development, in Encyclopadia of Food Technology,
Johnson, A.H. and Peterson, M.S., (Eds.) The Avi Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, Conn., 1974,
828-840.

’^M.C. Smith, N.D. Heidelbaugh, P.C. Rambaut, R.M. Rapp, H.O. Wheeler, C.S. Huber, and
C.T. Bourland, Apollo food technology, in Biomedical Results of Apollo, NASA SP-368, R.S.
Johnston, L.F. Dietlein, and C.A. Berry, Managing Editors, 1975, 437-468.

APOLLO CONFECTIONS

IV'6” CUBES

CHOCOLATE

COCONUT , JELLIED FRUIT BITES

CARAMEL

CHOCOLATE

PEANUT

STRAWBERRY

SWEET CHOCOLATE
with ALMONDS

CARAMEL TYPE

Apollo confections

Apollo food storage compartment

The first meal after launch in Apollo consisted of a frozen sandwich, which was prepared
and packaged under Apollo system quality control and stowed for easy access in a pocket
of each crew member's flight suit.

With few exceptions, all foods used during the Apollo program were analyzed for nitrogen,
fat, crude fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, and magnesium content

Foods consumed out of planned menu sequence and those which were not included in
the programmed menus (snacks) were recorded in flight logs. Furthermore, on all Apollo flights
most food residue and unopened food packages were returned; the residue was weighed to
provide more information on flight consumption and to verify in-flight logging procedures.
Thus NASA was able to determine the nutrient intake of each crew member on each Apollo
mission. The average intakes ranged from a low of 1350, 1260, and 1250 kcal (5643, 5267,
and 5225 kJ) per day for the Commander, Command Module pilot, and iurtar module pilot,
respectively, on the Apollo 10 mission to a high of 2903, 2482, and 2572 kcal (12,134, 10,456
and 10,751 kJ) per day for the respective Apollo 15 crew memben. Mean caloric intake
for the Apollo program was 1877 ± 415 kcal (7854 ± 1735 kJ).’*'” Flight surgeons at
Mission Control in Houston detected cardiac arrhythmias in two crew members during the
Apollo 15 mission. These arrhythmias were suspected of being linked to potassium deficits
and excessive workloads.*** Metabolic studies were conducted on Apollo 16 and Apollo 17
and the input and output of various elements, particularly potassium, were carefully examined
in the Apollo 16 balance study and a detailed assessment of energy metabolism was made.* '
The metabolic studies on Apoilo 17 were designed to determine the effect of space flight
on overall body composition and circulating and excretory levels of certain hormonal
constituents, thus providing a firmer basis for interpretation of Skylab metaboiic experiments.*^

’*P.C. Rambaut, M.C. Smith, P.B. Mack and J.M. Vogel, Skeletal response in Biomedical Results
of Apollo, NASA SP— 368, R.S. Johnston, LF. Dietlein and C.A. Berry, Managing Editors,
1975, 303-322.

*’P.C. Rambaut, M.C. Smith and H.O. Wheeler, Nutritional studies, in Biomodical Results of
Apollo, NASA SP— 368, R.S. Johnston, L.F. Dietlein, and C.A. Berry, Managing Editors, 1975,
277-302.

**R.S. Johnston and W.E. Hull, Apollo missions, in Biomedical Results of Apollo, NASA
SP-368, R.S. Johnston, LF. Dietlein, and C.A. Berry, Managing Editors, 1975, 9-40.

*'P.C. Johnson, P.C. Rambaut, C.S. Leach, Apollo 16 bioenergetic considerations, Nutr.
Metabol., 16, 119-126, 1974.

*^N.D. Heidelbaugh, M.C. Smith, P.C. Rambaut, L. Lutwak, C.S. Huber, and C.R. Stadler,
Clinical nutrition applications of space food technology, J. Am. Dietat. Aawc., 62, 383—389,
1973.

APOLLO MEALS

Apollo meal overwrap

Thermostabilized sandwich spreads used on Apollo menu

.. .

For both missions nutrient intake information was obtained for 72 hours before flight
and approximately 48 hours after flight. For the Apollo 17 mission a five-day metabolic balance
was performed approximately two months before the mission by using the fli^t menus and
collecting urine and fecal wastes. In the analysis of the balance study performed for Apollo 17,
mission inflight metabolic data were compared with those obtained during the preflight study.
For both Apollo 16 and 17 the potassium intakes were maintained above normal ground-based
intakes. To accomplish this, beverage powders were fortified with potassium gluconate. Ten
mEq potassium (as 2.35 gm potassium gluconate) added to a serving of the fruit flavored
beverages, cocoa, and even black coffee was not detectable by trained taste panels using triangle
sampling techniques.*^

Although package designs were modified and improved, all dehydrated and intermediate
moisture foods on the Apollo menus were packaged in the clear, flexible laminate used on
Project Gemini. A heat-processable laminated packaging material (modified polyolefin-aluminum
foil-polyester) was used for most thermostabilized foods. A nonflammable fluorohalocarbon
film was introduced and used as a meal overwrap material in the Apollo program.
Thermostabilized salad-type sandwich spreads were packaged in collapsible aluminum tubes
(Lunar Module) and in aluminum cans (Command Module).

The Food System for Skylab Missions

A primary purpose of the Skylab missions was to gather physiological information on
man's ability to perform during periods of prolonged weightlessness. Nutritional studies designed
to assess the effects of space flight on nutrition and musculoskeletal function was one of the
life science investigations intensively pursued during the Skylab program. In brief, these
experiments consisted of metabolic balance studies designed to quantitate the effects of space
flight on the rate of gain or loss of the key chemical constituents from the body plus exhaustive
endocrinological investigations probing those changes in control function which accompany or
precipitate changes in body composition and fluid and electrolyte metabolism.*

These experiments consisted of a nutrient input/output measurement on all Skylab
astronauts commencing 21 days preflight, continuing throughout the inflight phase, and for
an 18-day period postflight. Sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, nitrogen, magnesium,
energy and water intake were precisely measured within 2%. All fecal material and urine
samples were returned to Earth for analysis, and samples of blood were taken preflight, inflight,
and postflight.

Another objective of Skylab was to test those environmental conditions crucial to optima!
crew performance. A design goal of the Skylab program was to make the living and working

*^lbid.

* Results of Skylab medical experiments are reported in "Biomedical Results from Skylab"
edited by R.S. Johnston and L.F. Dietlein, NASA SP— 377, 1977. (Three specific references
are cited under supplemental references for 1977.)

environment comforteble end enjoyable. The type and variety of the food system was
recognized by NASA as foremost among the life conditions influencing behavior. The need
for accurate physiological data on the one hand and the objective of improving the habitabiiity
of the spacecraft on the other hand presanted a significant challanga to the development of
a food system for Skylab.

Every effort was made to make the food a positive morale factor and to include maximum
variety of acceptable foods on the Skylab menus. As a result, 72 baseline foods representing
six different categories of foods — thermostabilized, frozen, natural state, beverages,
intermediate moisture, and rehydratable — were chosen following preliminary screening by
astronauts. Individual menus were developed for each Skylab crew member from these foods,
and when finalized, each menu was supported by a minimum of five sets of sensory data
representative of crew acceptance.**'*^

A prime constraint for Skylab food was that each food item had to receive a mean
acceptance rating of 6 or above in astronaut taste panels. A 9-point hedonic scale was used
for ratings: 9 ^ like extremely, 6 ^ like slightly, 5 ■ neither like nor dislike and 1 > dislike
extremely.

Nutritional constraints for the Skylab food system required that each food ingredient be
quantified so that no single serving of any one food would vary from any other portion of
that food by more than 2 percent in regard to caiories, protein, calcium, phosphorus, sodium,
magnesium, and potassium. Also the daily menus had to provide a specified quantity of five
nutrients: prote’m,90 to 125 ± 10 gm, calcium, 750 to 850 ± 16 mg, phosphorus, 1,500 to
1,700 ±120 mg, sodium, 3,000 to 6,000 ± 500 mg, and magnesium, 300 to 400 ±100 mg,
plus at least 3,945 mg of potassium.**

Menus were designed according to 6-day cycles. The menus contained a core set of foods
which provided the required levels of nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium,
and sodium. This core diet was approximately 300 kcals (1255 kJ) less than the caloric
requirement established for Earth. All additional calories were provided by food items, termed
"caloric adjustment items," which were low enough in controllable elements so as not to perturb
the prescribed intake ranges.

**N.D. Heidelbaugh, M.C. Smith, P.C. Rambaut, T.E. Hartung, and C.S. Huber, Potential public
health applications of space food safety standards, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 159, 1462—1469,
1971.

**C.R. Stadler, D.D. Sanford, J.M. Reid, artd N.D. Heidelbaugh, Skylab menu development,
J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., 62, 390-393, 1973.

**P.C. Rambaut, N.D. Heidelbaugh, and M.C. Smith, Calcium and phosphorus mobilization
in man during wei^tless flight. Activities Report, 25, 1-7, 1973.

The crew was encouraged to consume completely their nominal menu. A system of negative
reporting was employed such that the crew reported at the end of each day any deviation
from the nominal menu. The only admissible deviations were the incomplete consumption
or omission of an item on the nominal menu, the use of an off/nominal rehydration quantity
or the consumption of a caloric adjustment item.

To maintain controlled intakes of the required minerals, in conjunction with these possible
deviations, the cr^ members were also supplied the following mineral supplements: calcium
lactate (32 mg calcium), orthophosphate (110 mg phosphorus), magnesium lactate (25 mg
magnesium), sodium chloride (197 mg sodium), and potassium gluconate (195 mg potassium).

The computer calculated mineral deficits from information transmitted to Earth by the
crew. The quantity of mineral supplements equivalent to these deficits was calculated in real
time and transmitted back to the crew. Vitamins were provided both by the food and, in
the 59-day and 84-day flights, by means of a vitamin supplement containing vitamin A (5000
lU), vitamin D (500 lU), vitamin E (15 lU), thiamine mononitrate (10 mg), riboflavin (10
mg), ascorbic acid (313 mg), niacinamide (100 mg), pyridoxine hydrochloride (2 mg), calcium
pantothenate (20 mg), cyancobalamine (4 mq). and folic acid (33 iig)*’’

Special attention was given to the water consumed by the crew during the Skylab mission.
The water system dispensed water for food and beverage preparation and drinking with an
accuracy of ± 1 percent. A separate drink dispenser was provided each crewman, it contained
a recording device for the amount of water dispensed. The water was essentially free of calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and sodium.

The degree of nutrient control for Skylab foods required the careful formulation of each
food. For many rehydratables it could only be achieved by blending separately dehydrated,
precooked ingredients. Thus, often the Skylab formulations for a product differed slightly
from those of the Gemini or Apollo formula. The Skylab food tray had the capability of
heating three foods in each meal to 65° ± 3.3°C (149° ± 6°F). The remaining four wells
of the food tray were unheated and remained cool. Silverware was provided for consumption
of the food. Freezer space on Skylab was limited, thus, each individual was allowed three
frozen items in any two-day period. All Skylab foods, except beverages, were packaged in
cans. Three sizes of cans were used with can volume influencing the serving size of the various
food items. Any given food was available in only one size can. All beverages were packaged
in collapsible polymeric containers which expanded on reconstitution. All food for the planned
28 and two 56-day missions* except that food planned for consumption in the Command
Module at the beginning and end of each mission was launched with the Skylab workshop.
Thus, it had to be shelf-stable for at least one year under ambient conditions.

^''M.C. Smith, P.C. Rambaut, and C.R. Stadler, Skylab nutritional studies in COSPAR Life
Sciences and Space Research, R. Holmquist and A.C. Strickland (Eds.), Volume 15, Pergamon
Press, Oxford and New York, 1977, 193—197.

*Actual mission durations were 28, 59, and 84 days.

Skylab food tray

Skylab bread

Skylab packaging - All Skylab foods, except beverages were packaged
in easy open cans. Primary package for rehydratables was a clear plastic
pouch with a reconstitution valve attached.

BEVERAGE CONTAINER

Skylab expandable beverage container

Complaints of blandness in the foods on the part of the Skylab 1 crew resulted in the
Skylab 2 and 3 crews launching with an assortment of condiments such as hot sauce,
horseradish, pepper, and garlic to supplement the catsup already aboard. The Skylab 3 crew
launched with a 28'day supply of formulated nutrient’defined, high^density food bars which
enabled the extension of their flight from the planned SG-day mission to 84 days.

A flexibly packaged, thermoprocessed fruitcake designed to be nutritionally complete at
a 2800 kcal (11,700 kJ) level was included in the Skylab food supply as a contingency food.
NASA approved the consumption of some of this cake only on Christmas Day 1973, as a
holiday treat.

The Food System for Apollo-Soyuz Mission

The Apollo-Soyuz food system maximized menu variety and incorporated the most
acceptable of the foods developed for Apollo and Skylab within Apollo-Soyuz mission
constraints; i.e., no freezer or food warmer, limited weight and volume, and limited supply
(about 300 mLper crew member) of hot (49°C) water. As with each previous NASA program
several new foods were introduced to the US space food Inventory including one completely
new food category — freeze-dried, reversibly compressed vegetables. Compressed, freeze-dried
pea bars (2.5 cm x 7.6 cm x 1.2 cm), requiring only a quarter of the volume of an equal
weight of freeze-dried peas, and spinach bars (2.5 cm x 7.6 cm x 0.5 cm), requiring only
1/1 1th of the volume of an equal weight of freeze-dried spinach, were included on the menus
chosen by astronauts Stafford and Slayton, Both products reconstituted to full half-cup portions
which looked and tasted like their frozen counterparts. The technology demonstrated in these
vegetables can also be applied to meats, cottage cheese, and fruits, as well as other vegetables.

Developed by the US Army Natick Research and Development Laboratories for use by
the Armed Forces under conditions where space, weight and/or volume are critical (e.g.
submarine and field feeding), this new class of compressed foods shows potential for wide
application to future space feeding.

Reconstitution of reversibly compressed, freeze-dried green vegetables which have been
given an extended blanch prior to freeze drying, and compressed, precooked, freeze-dried, diced
chicken, beef, or pork requires only soaking in hot water. Even products such as compressed
shredded carrots and cottage cheese reconstitute quickly in cool water. During reconstitution,
these products pick up most of the water removed during dehydration; and also return to
their original piece-sizes, shapes, and textures.

Recently, this new compression technology has also been successfully applied to entrees —
meat and vegetables or meat and rice combinations, instant puddings, and even sweetened
dehydrated drinks. For the military user, the fact that these compressed foods can be eaten
dry or reconstituted makes them particularly adaptable to emergency /assault feeding use. The
fact that they provide maximum and acceptable nutrition in minimum space and weight will
also appeal to those responsible for the logistical support of future space stations.

Four radappertized meats (meats sterilized by ionizing radiation) were included on the
Apollo-Soyuz menu: ham slices, corned beef, turkey slices and a char-broiled beef steak. The

Compressed dehydrated spinach and peas included on Apollo-Soyuz
menu — shown dry and rehydrated

SMOKEO TUHHtr SLICCS

BEEF STEAK

COAWED BEEF

radappertized char-broiled beef steak was also seiected by one of the Russian cosmonauts
(Aleksey A. Leonov) for his U.S. exchange meal. The raddeppertized meats furnished NASA
for Apollo-Soyuz use were prototypes of products under development for potential Armed
Forces use. Although shelf stable without refrigeration, the taste, texture^ and overall quality
of these irradiated meets is comparable to that of their freshly cooked counterparts.

The slices of commercially produced bread furnished the Apollo-Soyuz crew were packaged,
frozen, irradiated (50,(X)0 rad), and held frozen until stored aboard the space craft.

Dehydrated and intermediate moisture foods were packaged in the Apollo spoon-bowl
packages and/or pouches. Wet products were packaged in the flexibly laminated film as used
on Project Apollo or in the cans used in the Skylab food system. A modified Apollo beverage
package was used.

Microbiological Constraints

The possibility of increesed susceptibility to infection and increased virulence of
microorganisms under conditions encountered in manned spaceflight required the establishment
of strict microbiological requirements and extraordinary production methods for space foods.
These were consistent with the state of the art. Accordingly, the following microbiological
requirements for Apollo dehydrated space foods were established in 1964: aerobic plate count,
not greater than 10,(X)0/g; total conforms, not greater than 10/g; fecal conforms, negative in
one gram; fecal streptococci, rot greater than 20/g; coagulase positive staphylococci, negative
in 5 grams; and salmonella, negative in 10 grams.*'

Skylab food microbiological requirements were established for the first flight in 1973.**
The requirements were classified into two categories: those for foods which were
thermostabilized in metal cans and those for all other Skylab foods. Thermostabilized foods
were tested for sterility by first incubating sealed cans at 32° and 55°C, followed by
microbiological examination of the cans to detect microbial growth which nwy have occurred
without gas production (evidenced by swelling of the cans) during the incubation phase.
Microbiological requirements for all other Skylab foods were similar to those established for
dehydrated Apollo foods, with the following exceptions: the coliform and fecal coliform
requirements were replaced by an Escherichia coU count (negative per gram); fecal streptococci
limits were deleted artd requirements for C. perfringens (not greater than 100/g) and yeast
and mold counts (not greater than 100/g) were added.

*'H.M. El'Bisi, Microbiological requirements of space food prototypes. Activities Report, 17,
54-61, 1965.

**N.D. Heidelbaugh, D.B. Rowley, E.M. Powers, C.T. Bourland and J.L. McQueen,
Microbiological testing of Skylab focxls, Appl. Microbiol., 25, 55-61, 1973.

The aerobic plate count (APC) served as an index of sanitary processing as w«ll as proper
storage and transportation of food products. Of the food surveyed in 1968 and 1969, 93%
had APCs less than ID.IXM/g.^** The yeast and mold requirements supplemented the APC
and limited spacecraft contamination. All foods examined had low counts, which were well
within test limits.

The presence of conforms in processed foods is a useful indicator of post processing
contamination. Fecal coliforms are a more specific indicator of fecal contamination because
of the high incidence of E. coli within the group. Recovery of E. coli from foods implies
that pathogens and other organisms of fecal origin may be present. Of the Apollo foods tested,
98% had less than 10 coliforms/g, and 99% were negative for fecal coliforms. All Skylab
foods were negative for £. coH. Because E. coli is not a perfect indicator, requirements for
specific pathogens, namely, salmonellae and coagulase positive staphylococci, were selected.
None of the Skylab foods were positive for these two pathogens. Tests for C. perfringens
were performed on Skylab foods which required warming prior to consumption arxl in which
it was judged that C. perfringens might be present. The organism was not found in any of
the foods tested.^'

Microbiological examination of Apollo and Skylab foods demonstrated that all the
microbiological requirements were satisfied. However, the microbiological indices and test
procedures selected comprised only one segment of the total food safety system. Equally
important elements of this safety system which were essential to attainment of the established
test limits included strict criteria and procedures for raw materials, storage, processing,
transportation, and personnel monitoring.

Problems and Findings of the Various Space Flight Food Experiments

A brief summary of a succession of problems studied in the various flights is provided
in Table 1.

^"E.M. Powers, C. Ay, H.M. El-Bisi, and D.B. Rowley, Bacteriology of dehydrated space foods,
Appl. Microbiol., 22, 441-445, 1971.

^ ' See reference 49.

Can a spoon be used to consume food? b. A spoon can be used for all foods except

beverages and thin soups.

Inventory of U.S. Space Foods

An inventory of the foods included on the final Mercury flight and on the Gemini, Apollo,
Skylab, and Apollo-Soyuz menus is provided in Appendix A, Table A-1, Foods and Food
Supplements Included on U.S. Space Flight Menus, in viewr of the transient and experimental
nature of many of the earliest space foods. Project Mercury 6, 7 and 8 menus are not included
in this table. For convenience and to facilitate pianning future space flight or space station
menus, the 220 foods have been grouped into 1 1 major menu use categories - entrees, soups,
fruits and vegetables, bread and crackers, cereals, spreads, condiments, desserts, beverages,
confections, nuts and srtacks and high-density food bars. As appropriate, each category of
food is subclassified by type of food, nameiy bite-size, rehydratable, thermo-stabilized, natural
form, irradiated, frozen, intermediate moisture and baked (natural form). The foods are listed
alphabetically under each subclassification. The unit weight or portion size, principal ingredients
and processing procedures cited in Table A-1 reflect those cited in the latest production guides,
specifications, or product descriptions.

Conclusions

The foods used on US space flights have been comprised of a wide variety of natural
foods which have been specially processed and/or packaged to adapt them to null gravity
consumption and other mission constraints. However, a 28-day supply of nutritionally defined
formulated foods was also utilized on the final Skylab mission. Called high density food ban,
9 different flavored or formulated products were launched with the Skylab 3 crew. These
supplemental bars were consumed every third day in lieu of the planned Skylab menus composed
of conventional foods and made it possible for NASA to extend the planned 56-day mission
to 84 days.

However, if the following observations made by Edward G. Gibson, a crew member of
the final 84-day Skylab flight, are heeded, nutritionally defined formulated foods such as these
will not be utilized extensively in planning future diets for routine space missions: "We
experienced hunger on two different occasions because of the types of diet we were on. In
order to extend our mission from 56 to 84 days, we supplemented our meals with high density
food bars every third day. During those days, we had the same amount of minerals and number
of calories as we had on other days, but the amount of food was greatly reduced so we ended
up fairly hungry on every third day . . . Another effect of the food was from the Mineral
Balance experiment M071. It was a worthwhile experiment, but it certainly did have its impact
on the food system. In the future, we'd like to see a food system where there would be
more flexibility of choice in what one wants to eat, when one wants to eat it, and how one
wants to season it. An open pantry versus a preplanned rigid diet such as we had would
be an optimum situation from the crew operational standpoint".^ ^

^^E.G. Gibson, Skylab 4 crew observations in Biomedical Results from Skylab, R.S. Johnston,
and L.F. Oietlein, Eds. 1977, 27.

The comments of Dr. Joseph P. Keiwin, the Scientist Pilot in Skyleb 2 and the first
U.S. physician astronaut in space, are also of interest to the planners of future ^Joce diets.
These are: 'To me, the most astonishing thing was our ability and desire to peek in the
groceries, and there's a long preflight history to that. We fought and scratched with the Principal
Investigators on that diet for 4 or 5 years. We finally settled on an in-flight diet estimation,
which kind of went like this: We had several 6-day periods of food intake measurement prior
to the flight. These data were taken and ware modified by certain standard height/weight/surfaoe
area tables, and so forth, to get a best estimate of our average caloric intake, and then we
subtracted 300 kilocalories from that. Most of us ware certain that even that anuMjnt of
food was going to be too great. And lo and baholdl We discovered that after a days
of decreased appetite in flight we were able to eat all our food. Indeed, as th> sions
progressed the amount of food the crew was allowed to eat increased and their exercise increased,
they were essentially eating the same amount of food as they ate on the ground. That to
me is a mystery. I still don't understand how in an environment in which certainly muscular
work is reduced, the caloric demand and the relationship between caloric intake and body
weight remain just about the same as they do on the ground, I think that's a very interest .
problem that we haven't yet been able to solve".*’

*’J.P. Kerwin, Skylab 2 crew observations and summary, in Biomedical Results from Skylab,
R.S. Johnston, and L.F. Dietlein, Eds. 1977, 28.

MAIN ASPECTS OF
FOOD SYSTEMS FOR
SHUTTLE FLIGHTS

FOODS

Appetizing, wholaiome. nutritious convenience foods, light in
weight and low in volume. Types of foods include: thermo-
stabilized, rehydratable, irradiated, natural form, and intermediate
moisture.

FOOD PACKAGING

Operational missions, OPS, (beginning with the fifth shuttle
mission) will use one package for rehydratable foods and
beverages. It will have an injection molded base with a
thermoformed flexible lid. It will use a needle-septum concept
for reconstitution. The Orbital Flight Tests, OFT, (first four
shuttle missions) are using the types of packaging and water
dispensing systems used in Apollo, Skylab, and Apollo-Soyuz Test
Project missions.

FOOD PREPARATION

OPS missions will use a galley system having a food preparation
area, a semi-automatic r^ydration unit and a convection oven.

— A hot water heater will be a component of the galley facility.
The OFT missions, having no galley or water heater, use a portable
food warmer to heat reconstituted foods and beverages.

RESTRAINTS

The food lockers, located near the spacecraft electronic gear, may
reach temperatures above 32°C (SO^F). This limits dte type of

— foods which can be used. Food package design and hardware
must still function in zero gravity; liquids must still be fully
contained at all times.

MENUS

I Menu is a standard menu instead of the personal preference menu
I used on earlier missions. A pantry is provided to supplement
^ the menu. The menu provides 3(X)0 kilocalories per day. A
6-day menu cycle will be used for the OPS missions; a 4-day
menu cycle on the OFT missions.

ADDENDUM

The Food Systems for Shuttle Flights® ^ ® ‘

When the space shuttle Orbiter Columbia was launched on its first flight into space on
12 April 1981 and landed safely 54% hours later, a new and important advance in man's
exploration of space was initiated. Columbia's second flight, 12—14 November 1981 confirmed
the reusability of the Space Shuttle Orbiter, a basic objective of this space shuttle project.
This new spacecraft is designed to tran'sport into Earth orbit a crew of seven for 30 days and
a payload of 30 tons. It will have its own unique food system. That system insofar as it
has been designed and developed is briefly summarized opposite. . The requirements of this
system are different from those of previous U.S. space missions.

Goal. The goal of the work on the shuttle food system, as for previous missions, is
to provide crew members with appetizing, safe, nutritious, and convenient food that is light
in weight and low in volume. This objective must be achieved within many of the same
biological, operational and engineering constraints which influenced development of the feeding
systems for earlier missions. However, the improved environmental conditions in the Shuttle
Orbiter, principally the elimination of the oxygen enriched atmosphere used on previous
spacecraft and a nominal ambient cabin pressure of 15 psi, have allowed NASA to relax some
of the food packaging constraints imposed on earlier flights. They have also supported NASA's
consideration of cost effective alternatives to the custom order mositure>vapor- and gas-barrier
packaging films and intensive packages used on earlier missions.

According to Bouriand et the new space food system will be introduced on the
fifth shuttle mission — the first Operational Mission (OPS). The changes will include a
redesigned package for rehydratables and a new galley. The new rehydration package will
have an injection molded base with a thermoformed flexible lid and will use a needle-septum
cortcept for rehydration. One package will be used for both rehydratable foods and beverages.
Automated production and more readily available materials will reduce the cost of space food
packaging. The galley system has a food preparation area, a semi-automatic rehydration unit
and a convection oven. The time required to add water to the packages has been reduced
to 3—5 minutes. Foods for space flights are purchased in lots and held at 4°C (40° F) until
one to two months before a scheduled flight when they are transferred to flight packages.

®*C.T. Bouriand, M.F. Foley, R.M. Rapp, and R.L. Sauer, Space shuttle food processing and
packaging, J. Food Protect., Vol. 44, 313—315, April 1981.

®®C.R. Stadler, C.T. Bouriand, R.M. Rapp, and R.L. Sauer, Food System for Space Shuttle
Columbia, J. Am. Dietet. Assm., Vol. M, 108—114, February 1982.

®‘R.L. Sauer and R.M. Ropp, STS-1 Medical Report, NASA TM-58240, S.L. Pool, P.C.
Johson, Jr., and J.A. Mason, Editors, 54—57, October 1981.

®''See reference 54.

A composite photograph of the STS— 1 food system is shown. From the
top, left to right; a locker tray packed with overwrap meals, various
sizes of flexible foil retort pouches, food being placed in the food warmer;
center row: beef with vegetables in a spoon-bowl package, food being
eaten from a spoon-bowl package aboard Columbia, Skylab beverage package,
bottom row: meal assembled on the serving tray clipped to the mid-deck
lockers, utensils used on STS— 1, and the OFT water dispensing unit.

FQLYLTHELYLENE DRINKING STRAW

Shuttle Galley

The fact that the lockers used for the storage of food aboard the Orbiter are located
near the spacecraft electronic gear and may reach temperatures above 32.2°C (90° F) does,
however, limit the types of foods which can be used on shuttle missions. The types of foods
planned for the space shuttle include: thermostabilized, rehydratable, irradiated, natural form,
and intermediate moisture.

The first four missions, called the Orbital Flight Tests (OFT), are being flown without
a galley and thus are using an interim shuttle food system. The food packages used on Apollo,
Skylab, and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project missions are being used with this interim system. Although
a hot water heater will be a component of the galley, hot water is not available for the OFT;
therefore, a portable food warmer is being used to heat food for these missions. The list
of foods and beverages approved for OFT shuttle flight use is furnished as Table 1. Those
foods preceded by an asterisk are identical to or very similar to foods used on earlier space
programs — those described in Appendix A, Table A— 1.

The shuttle menu will provide 3000 kilocalories per day. It will be a standard menu instead
of the personal preference type menu used on previous flights. Diversified crews and projected
flight frequencies have dictated this approach. A pantry will be provided to supplement the
menu. Individual crew members will have a voice in the selection of pantry components.
Table 2 provides the standard OFT menu. Table 3 provides the list of foods supplied in
the pantry which can be used as snacks or as substitutes for menu items. These pantry foods
also serve as the contingency food supply.

Tabte 1. BaMline OFT Shuttit Food and Bawaga Litt

* Applesauce (T)

* Apricots, Dried (IM)

* Asparagus (R)

Bananas (FO)

Beef Almondine (R)

* Beef, Corned (l)(T)

* Beef and Gravy (T)

* Beef, Ground w/Pickle Sauce (T)

* Beef Jerky (IM)

* Beef Pattie (R)

* Beef, Slices w/BBQ Sauce (T)

* Beef Steak (l){T)

Beef Stroganoff w/Noodles (R)

* Bread, Seedless Rye (l)(NF|
Broccoli au Gratin (R)

» Breakfast Roll (l)(NF)

Candy, Chocolate Coated
Candy, Life Savors, Assorted
Flavor (NF)

Cauliflower w/Cheese (R)

* Cereal, Bran Flakes (R)

* Cereal, Cornflakes (R)

* Cereal, Granola (R)

Cereal, Granola w/Blueberrie$ (R)
Cereal, Granola w/Raisins (R)

* Cheddar Cheese Spread (T)

* Chicken ala King |T)

Chicken and Noodles (R)

Noodles and Chicken (R)

* Chicken and Rice (R)

Chili Mac w/Beef (R)

* Cookies, Butter

* Cookies, Pecan (NF)

* Cookies, Shortbread (NF)

* Crackers, Graham (NF)

* Eggs, Scrambled (R)

Food Bar, Almond Crunch (NF)
Food Bar, Chocolate Chip (NF)
Food Bar, Granola (NF)

Food Bar, Granola/Raisin (NF)

Green Beans and Broccoli (R)

Food Bar, Peanut Butter/Granola (NF)

* Frankfurters (Vienna Sausage) (T)

* Fruitcake

* Fruit Cbcktail (T)

Green Beans, French w/Mushrooms (R)

* Ham {l)(T)

* Jam/Jelly (T)

* Macaroni and Cheese (R)

* Meatballs w/BBQ Sauce (T)

* Nuts, Almonds (NF)

Nuts, Cashews (NF)

* Nuts, Peanuts (NF)

* Peach Ambrosia (R)

* Peaches, Dried (IM)

* Peaches (T)

* Peanut Butter

* Pears (FD)

* Pears (T)

Peas w/Butter Sauce (R)

* Pineapple, Crushed (T)

* Potato Pattie

* Pudding, Butterscotch (T)

* Pudding, Chocolate (R)|T)

* Pudding, Lemon (T)

* Pudding, Vanilla (R)(T)

Rice Pilaf (R)

* Salmon (T)

* Sausage Pattie (R)

Shrimp Creole (R)

* Shrimp Cocktail (R)

* Soup, Cream of Mushroom (R)
Spaghetti w/Meatless Sauce (R)

* Strawberries (R)

* Tomatoes, Stewed (T)

* Tuna (T) |

* Turkey and Gravy (T)

* Turkey, Smoked/Sliced (l)(T)

Turkey, Tetrazzini (R)

Vegetables, Mixed Italian (R)

NOTE: Assuming no food warming capability on the Orbiter
* Foods are identical to or similar to those on earlier space programs.

Beverages

Apple Drink

* Cocoa

* Coffee, Black

* Coffee w/Cream

* Coffee w/Cream and Sugar

* Coffee w/Sugar

* Grape Drink

* Grapefruit Drink

* Instant Breakfast, Chocolate
Instant Breakfast, Strawberry
Instant Breakfast, Vanilla

* Lemonade

* Orange Drink

* Orange-Grapefruit Drink

* Orange-Pineapple Drink

* Strawberry Drink

* Tea

* Tea w/LjenfH>n and Sugar

* Tea w/Sugar
Tropical Punch

Condiments

BBQ Sauce

Catsup

Mustard

Pepper

Salt

Hot Pepper Sauce
Mayonnaise

Abbreviations

j — Thermostablized
IM — Intermediate Moisture
R — Rehydratable
I — Irradiated
FD — Freeze-Dried
NF — Natural Form

Table 2. Shuttle - Standard OFT Menu

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Shuttle Transportation System

List of Reforanoes

Berry, C.A., Aeromedical Preparations, in Mercury Project Summary Including RewIts of the
Fourth Manned Orbital Flight May 15 and 16, 1963, NASA SP-45, 1963, 203.

Catterson, A.D., E.P. McCutcheon, H.A. Minners, and R.A. Pollard, Aeromedical Preparations,
in Mercury Project Summary Including Results of the Fourth Manned Orbital Fli^ May 15
and 16, 1963, NASA SP-45, 1963, 315.

Chapin, R.E., R.S. Kronenberg, M.J. O'Hara, D.C. Loper, and J.E. Vanderveen, Nutritional
evaluation of foods developed for aerospace operations I. A diet composed of bite-size
and rehydratable foods. Presented at the 38th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Aerospace
Medical Association, Washington, DC, April 1967.

El-Bisi, H.M., Microbiological requirements of space food prototypes, ActivitieB Report, 17.
54-61, 1965.

Flentge, R.L., A.C. Grim, F.F. Doppeit, and J.E. Vanderveen, How conventional eating methods
were found feasible for spacecraft. Food Technol., 25, 51—54, 1971.

Gibson, E.G., Skylab 4 crew observations, in Biomedical Results from Skyidb, R.S. Johnston
and L.F. Dietlein, Eds. 1977, 22-26

Hartung, T.E., L.B. Bullerman, R.G. Arnold, and N.O. Heidelbaugh, Application of low dose
irradiation to a fresh bread system for space flights, J. Food Sci., 38, 129—132, 1973.

Heidelbaugh, N.O., D.B. Rowley, E.M. Powers, C.T. Bourland and J.L. McQueen,
Microbiological testing of Skylab foods, Appl. Microbiol., 25, 55-61, 1973.

Heidelbaugh, N.O., M.C. Smith, P.C. Rambaut, T.E. Hartung, and C.S. Huber, Potential public
health applications of space food safety standards, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 159, 1462—1469,
1971.

Heidelbaugh, N.D., M.C. Smith, P.C. Rambaut, L. Lutwak, C.S. Huber, and C.R. Stedler, Clinical
nutrition applications of space food technology, J. Am. Dietst. Assoc., 62. 383—389, 1973.

Heidelbaugh, N.D., J.E. Vanderveen, M.V. Klicka, and M.J. O'Hara, Study of man during a
56-day exposure at 258 mm Hg total pressure; VIII. Observations on feeding bite-size
foods, Aerosp. Med., 37, 583-590, 19^.

Hollender, H.A., Development of food items to meet Air Force requirements for space travel.
Technical Documentation Report AMRL— TDR 64—38, Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio. 1964.

Hollender, H.A., M.V. Klicka, and P.A. Lachance, Space feeding: Meeting the challenge. Cereal
Sci. Today, 13, 44-48, 1968.

Hollender, H.A., M.V. Klicka, and M.C. Smith, Food technology problems related to space
feeding, in COSPAR Life Science and Space Research. VIII, North - Holland Publ. Co..
1970, 265-279.

Huber, C.S., M.C. Smith, and M.V. Klicka, Space foods, in Health and Food, G.G. Birch,

L. F. Green, and L.G. Plaskett, Eds., Halsted Press, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1972,
130-151.

Johnson. P.C., P.C. Rambaut, C.S. Leach, Apollo 16 bioenergetic considerations, Nutr. Matabol.,
16. 119-126, 1974.

Johnston, R.S. and W.E. Hull, Apollo missions, in Biomedical Results of Apollo, NASA SP-368,
R.S. Johnston, L.F. Oietlein, and C.A. Berry, Managing Editors, 1975, 9-40.

Katchman, B.J., G.M. Homer, and D. Dunco, The biochemical, physiological and metabolic
evaluation of human subjects wearing pressure suits and on a diet of precooked dehydrated
foods. AMRL-TR-67-8, 51 pp, 1967.

Kerwin, J.P., Skylab 2 crew observations and summary, in Biomechcal Results from Skylab,
R.S. Johnston and L.F. Dietlein, Eds. 1977, 27—29.

Klicka, M.V., Space foods and their development, in Encyclopedia of Food Technology,
A.H. Johnson, and M.S. Peterson, (Eds.) The Avi Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, Conn., 1974,
828-840.

Klicka, M.V., H.A. Hollender, and P.A. Lachance, Foods for Astronauts, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc.,
51, 238-245, 1967.

Klicka, M.V., P.A. Lachance, and H.A. Hollender, Space feeding. Activities Report 20, 53—72,
1968.

Lachance, P.A., Development of stored food and water systems. Environ. Biol. Med., Vol. 1,
pp 205-228, 1971, with Appendix A — Nutrient composition of space flight foods,

M. V. Klicka, and M.H. Thomas.

Lachance, P.A. and C.A. Berry, Luncheon in space, Nutr. Today, 2 (2), 2—11, 1967.

Lachance, P.A., M.V. Klicka, and H.A. Hollender, Space feeding: Cereal products utilized in
the US manned space program. Cereal Sd. Today, 13, 49-54, 70, 1M8.

Linder, C.A., and V.R. Must, The effect of repetitive feedings on the acceptability of selected
metabolic diets, AMRL— TR— 66— 75, 8 pp, 1967.

Lutwak, L., G.D. Whedon, P.A. Lachance, J.M. Reid, and H. Lipscomb, Mineral electrolyte
and nitrogen balance studies of the Gemini VII 14-day orbital space flight, J. Clin. Endocrinol.
Metabol., 29, 1140-1156, 1969.

Mack, P.B.. G.P. Vose, F.B. Vogt, and P.A. Lachance, Experiment M— 6, bone demineralization,
in Gemini Midprogram Conference, NASA SP— 121, 1966, 407—415.

Michel, E.L., Preparation, handling and storage of foods for present space projects. Conference
on Nutrition in Space and Related Waste Problems, NASA SP— 70, 1964, 57-63.

Nanz, R.A., P.A. Lachance, and M.V. Klicka, Food consumption on Gemini IV, V and VII
missions, NASA TM X— 58010, October 1967.

Nanz, R.A., E.L. Michel, and P.A. Lachance, Evolution of a space feeding concept for Project
Gemini, NASA TM X-51697, 1964.

Nanz, R.A., E.L. Michel, and P.A. Lachance, Evolution of space feeding concepts during the
Mercury and Gemini space programs. Food Technol., 21, 1596—1602, 1967.

Nebesky, E.A., G.L. Schulz, and F.J. Rubinate, Packaging for space flights, Activities Report,
17, 32-36, 1965.

O'Hara, M.J., R.E. Chapin, N.D. Heidelbaugh, and J.E. Vanderveen, Aerospace feeding;
Acceptability of bite-size and dehydrated foods, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., 51, 246—250 1967.

Powers, E.M., C. Ay, H.M. El-Bisi, and D.B. Rowley, Bacteriology of dehydrated space foods,
Appl. Microbiol., 22, 441-445, 1971.

Rambaut, P.C., N.D. Heidelbaugh, and M.C. Smith, Calcium and phosphorus mobilization in
man during weightless flight. Activities Report, 25, 1—7, 1973.

Rambaut, P.C., M.C. Smith, P.B. Mack, and J.M. Vogel, Skeletal response in Biomedical Results
of Apollo, NASA SP-36S, R.S. Johnston, L.F. Dietlein, and C.A. Berry, Managing Editors,
1975, 303-322.

Rambaut, P.C., M.C. Smith, and H.O. Wheeler, Nutritional studies, in Biomedical Results of
Apollo, NASA SP— 368, R.S. Johnston, L.F. Dietlein, and C.A. Berry, Managing Editors,
1975, 277-302.

Reid, J.M., L. Lutwak, and G.D. Whedon, Dietary control in the metabolic studies of Gemini 7
space flight, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., 342—347, 1968.

Speckmann, E.W., K.J. Smith, J.E. Vanderveen, G.M. Homer, and D.W. Dunco, Nutritional
acceptability of a dehydrated diet, Aerosp. Med., 36, 256—260, 1965.

Smith, K.J., Nutritional evaluation of a precooked dehydrated and bite-size compressed food
diet as a sole source of nutriment for six weeks, AMRL— TR-66— 3, 30 pp., 1966.

Smith, K.J., E.W. Speckmann, P.A. Lachance, and D.W. Dunco, Nutritional evaluation of a
precooked dehydrated diet for possible use in aerospace systems. Food Technol., 20,
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Smith, M.C., N.D. Heidelbaugh, P.C. Rambaut, R.M. Rapp, H.O. Wheeler, C.S. Huber, and
C.T. Bourland, Apollo food technology, in Biomedical Results of Apollo, NASA SP— 368,
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Smith, M.C., P.C. Rambaut, and C.R. Stadler, Skylab nutritional studies in COSPAR Life
Sciences and Space Research, R. Holmquist, and A.C. Strickland, (Eds.), Volume 15,
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Stadler, C.R., D.D. Sanford, J.M. Reid, and N.D. Heidelbaugh, Skylab menu development, J.
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Stone, S.E., Gemini flight food qualification testing: requirements and problems. Activities
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Vanderveen, J.E., N.D. Heidelbaugh, and M.J. O'Hara, Study of man during a SS-day exposure
to an oxygen-helium atmosphere at 258 mm Hg total pressure IX, Nutritional evaluation
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Addendum

C.T. Bourland, M.F. Foley, R.M. Rapp, and R.L. Sauer. Space shuttle food processing and
packaging, J. Food Protect., Vol. 44, 313—315, April 1M1.

R.L. Sauer and R.M. Ropp, STS-1 Medical Report, NASA TM— 58240, S.L. Pool, P.C. Johson,
Jr., and J.A. Mason, Editors, 54—57, October 1M1.

C.R. Stadler, C.T. Bourland, R.M. Rapp, and R.L. Sauer, Food System for Space Shuttle
Columbia, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., Vol. 80, 108—114, February 1982.

Supplemental References

Prior to 1963

Taylor, A.A. and B. Finkelstein, Preventive medicine aspects of flight feeding. Am. J. Public
Health, 48, 604-609, 1958.

Finkelstein, B. and A.A. Taylor, Food, nutrition and the space traveler. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.,
8, 793-800, 1960.

Finkelstein, B., Nutrition research for the space traveler, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., 36, 313—317,
1960.

Taylor, A.A., B. Finkelstein, and R.E. Hayes, Food for space travel, US AF Report,
ARDC-TR-60-8, Andrews AFB, 1960.

Thomas, M.H. and O.H. Calloway, Nutritional evaluation of dehydrated foods, J. Am. Dietet.
Assoc., 39, 105-116, 1961.

Schuetze, C.E., W.E. McMahon, L.M. Adams, and W.M. Barnes, Encapsulation of foods.
Technical Documentary Report No. MRL— TDR— 62— 53, Wright Patterson Air Force Base,
19 pp., 1962.

Roth, N.G. R.B. Wheaton, and H.H. Morris, Control of waste putrefaction in space flight.
Developments in Industrial Microbiology, 3, NY, Plenum Press, 1962, p. 35.

1963

Lachance, P.A. and J.E. Vanderveen, Problems in space foods and nutrition: foods for extended
space travel and habitation. Food Technol., 17, 567—572, 1963.

1964

Calloway, D.H., Nutritional aspects of gastronautics, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., 44, 347—352, 1964.

Hollender, H.A., Discussion: Preparation, handling and storage of foods for present space
projects, in Conference o't Nutrition in Space and Related Waste Problems, NASA SP— 70,
65-69, 1964.

Finkelstein, B., Food, in Bioastronautics Data Book, Webb, P., Ed., NASA SP— 3006, 1964,
pp. 191-199.

Finkelstein, B. and J.J. Symons, Feeding concepts for manned space stations, J. Am. Dietet.
Assoc., 44, 353-357, 1964.

Klicka, M.V., Development of space foods, J. Am. Dietet. Assoc., 44, 358—361, 1964.

Roth, N.G. and JJ. Symons, Handling and storage of food for long flints, in Confaranoa
on Nutrition in Space and Related Watte Problems, NASA SP— 70, 1964, 86—91.

Webb, P., Bioastronautics Data Book, NASA SP— 3006, 1964.

1965

Calloway, O.H., Nutritional criteria of primary concern to space flight. Activities Report, 17,
7-10, 1965.

Finkelstein, B., Pre-flight space feeding. Activities Report, 17, 11—13, 1965.

Hawley, R.L. and F. Parker, Observations on simulated space feeding experiments. Activities
Report, 17, 44-53, 1965.

Hollender, H.A., Technology of space foods. Activities Report, 17, 19—31, 1965.

Hollender, H.A. and M.V. Klicka, Development of dehydrated and bite size food items, AF
Technical Report AMRL-TR-65-160, 1965.

Link, M.M., Space medicine in project Mercury, NASA SP— 4003, 1965.

Miller, S.A., H.A. Dymsza, S.R. Tannenbaum, and S.A. Goldblith, Metabolic studies of energy
dense compounds for aerospace nutrition, AF Technical Report AMRL— TR— 64— 121, 1965.

Tuomy, J.M., Development of dehydrated meat and fish salads for military use. Food Techiwl.,
19, 46-50, 1965.

1966

Bustead, R.L. and J.M. Tuomy, Food quality design for Gemini and Apollo space program.
Presented at 20th Annual Conference of American Society for Quality Control, June 1966.

Heidelbaugh, N.D., Space flight feeding systems: Characteristics, concepts for improvement
and public health implications, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 149, 1662—1671, 1966.

Smith, K.J., E.W. Speckmann, and R.L. Hein, Selected bibliography on the sustenance of man
in aerospace systems, AMRL— TR— 65-234, 70 pp, 1966.

Klicka, M.V., and H.A. Hollender, Developing space foods. Industry, 32, 26—27 and 61, 1966.

Klicka, M.V., H.A. Hollender, and P.A. Lachance, Development of space foods, Svanska
Ekonomiforestandarinnors. Tidskrift No. 1 (Sweden), 1966.

Lachance, P.A., Nutritional aspects of space feeding. Nutrition Needs, 29 (4), Dec. 1966.

Margen, S. and D.H. Calloway, Clinical study of minimum protein and caloric requirements
for man. Annual Report to NASA on NASA Grant NGR— 05— 003— 068 and contract NAS
9-3966, Sept. 1966.

1967

Heidelbaugh, N.D. and M.A. Rosenbusch, A method to manufacture pelletized formula foods
in small quantities. USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Tech. Report SAM— TR— 67— 75,
1967.

Katchman, B.J., G.M. Homer, J.P. Murphy, C.A. Linder, and V. Must, The biochemical,
physiological and metabolic evaluation of human subjects in a life support systems evaluator
and on a liquid food diet, AMRL— TR— 67— 72, 55 pp. 1967.

Lachance, P.A. and R.A. Nanz, The acceptability of food items developed for space flight
feeding. Food TechnoL, 21, 1361-1367, 1967.

Must, V.K., C.A. Linder, D.W. Dunco, K.J. Smith, and E.W. Speckmann, Comparison of
organoleptic acceptability of liquid and fresh diets, AMRL— TR— 65— 179, 9 pp, 1967.

Webb, P., Weight loss in men in space. Science, 155, 558—560, 3 Feb. 1967.

1968

Heidelbaugh, N.D., J.E. Vanderveen, and H.G. Iger, Development and evaluation of liquid
formula foods for aerospace feeding systems, Aerosp. Med., 39, 138—143, 1968.

1969

El-Bisi, H.M. and E.M. Powers, The microbiological wholesomeness of space foods. Technical
Report 70— 41— FL, US Army Natick Laboratories, Natick, Mass, June 1969.

Fischer, C.L., P.C. Johnson, and C.A. Berry, Red blood cell mass and plasma volume changes
in manned space flight, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 200, 579—583, 1969.

Mehrlich, F.P. and M.V. Klicka, Food in space. Activities Report, 21, 155—168, 1969.

Smith Jr., M.C., and C.A. Berry, Dinner on the moon, Nutr. Today, Autumn, 37—42, 1969.

1970

Flentge, R.L. and R.L. Bustead, Manufacturing requirements of food for aerospace feeding,
USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Technical Report, SAM— TR— 70— 23, Brooks AF Base,
1970.

Hollander, H.A. and M.V. Klicka, Feeding man in space. Proceedings of die Seventh Annual
Working Group on Extraterrestrial Resources, NASA SP-229, 1970, 36—49.

Huber, C.S., Long term space mission requirements, Aerospace Food Technology, NASA
SP-202, 145-149, 1970.

KVicka, M.V., Space food development: A review. Activities Report, 22, 63—78, 1970.

Lachance, P.A. and M.V. Klicka, The use of meat with an extended shelf life in the nutrition
of the astronaut, in Proceedings of the Meat Industry Research Conference, University of
Chicago, 26—27 March 1970.

Smith, M.C., 11ie Apollo food program. Aerospace Food Technology, NASA SP— 202, 5—13,
1970.

1971

Bourland, C.T., C.S. Huber, and N.D. Heidelbaugh, The relative effectiveness of
8-hydroxyquinoline sulfate and alkyl dimethyl benzi ammonium chloride in the stabilization
of aerospace food waste, J. Food Milk Technol., 34, 478—481, 1971.

Brodinsky, R.L., L.A. Randtelli, W.A. Huller, and L.S. Dewey, Calcium, potassium and iron
loss by Apollo 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 astronauts, Aerosp. Il/M., 42, 621-626, 1971.

Heidelbaugh, N.D. and M.C. Smith, Potential applications of space food processing environment
controls for the food industry. Proceedings Food Engineering Forum: Environment and
the Food Processor, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng., St. Joseph, Michigan, 95—105, 1971.

Smith, M.C., C.S. Huber, and N.D. Heidelbaugh, Apollo 14 food system, Aerosp. Med., 42,
1185-1192, 1971.

1972

Berry, C.A., and M. Smith, What we've learned from space exploration, Nutr. Today, 4—11
and 29-32, Sept-Oct 1972.

Bush, W.H., Skylab food system project: Support and management. Activities Report, 33—39,
1972.

Rambaut, P.C., C.T. Bourland, N.D. Heidelbaugh, C.S. Huber, and M.D. Smith, Some flow
properties of foods in null gravity. Food Technol., 26, 58—63, 1972.

Smith, M.C., P.C. Rambaut, N.D. Heidelbaugh, R.M. Rapp, and H.O. Wheeler, Food and
nutrition studies for Apollo 16, NASA TM—X— 58096, MSC— 07195, Oct. 1972.

1973

Bannerot, R.B., J.E. Cox, C.K. Chen, and N.D. Heidelbaugh, Heating of foods in space vehicle
environments. Am. Soc. of Mechanical Engineers Publication 73— WA/HT— 15, 1973.

Heidelbaugh, N.D., P.C. Rambaut, and M.C. Smith, Incorporation of nutritional therapy in
space food systems, Activities Report, 25, 7-23, 1973.

Ifukielbaugii, N.D., D.B. Rowley, E.M. Powers, C.T. Bourland, and J.S. McQueen,
Microbiological testing of Skylab foods, Appi. Microbiol., 25, 55—61, 1973.

Heidelbaugh, N.D., M.C. Smith, and P.C. Rambaut, Food safety in NASA nutrition programs,
J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 163, 1065-1070, 1973.

Heidelbaugh, N.O., M.C. Smith, P.C. Rambaut, and C. Leach, Space food processing environment
controls and safety standards, AlCHE Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series No.
132, 69, 87-90, 1973.

Huber, C.S., N.O. Heidelbaugh, R.M. Rapp, and M.C. Smith, Nutrition systems for pressure
suits, Aerosp. Med., 44, 905—909, 1973.

Rambaut, P.C., N.D. Heidelbaugh, J.M. Reid, and M.C. Smith, Caloric balance during simulated
and actual space flight, Aerosp. Med., 44, 1264—1269, 1973.

1974

Bannerot, R.B., J.E. Cox, C.K. Chen, and N.D. Heidelbaugh, Thermal preparation of foods
in space vehicle environments, Aerosp. Med., 45, 263—268, 1974.

Bourland, C.T., N.D. Heidelbaugh, C.S. Huber, P.R. Kiser, and D.B. Rowley, Hazard analysis
of Clostridium perfringens in the Skylab food system, J. Milk Food Technol., 37, 624, 628,
1974.

Leach, C.S., P.C. Rambaut and P.C. Johnson, Adrenal cortical responses of the Apollo IZcrew
members, Aerosp. Med., 45, 529—534, 1974.

Smith, M.C., R.M. Rapp, C.S. Huber, P.C. Rambaut, and N.D. Heidelbaugh, Apollo experience
report - Food Systems, NASA TN D— 7720, July 1974, 66 pp.

Vogel, J.M., P.C. Rambaut, and M.C. Smith, Bone mineral measurements from Apollo
experiments M-078, NASA TMX-58110, Jan. 1974.

1975

Heidelbaugh, N.D., Industrial applications of space food technology, Underwood-Prescott
Memorial Lecture, 1975, MIT Press.

1977

Bourland, C.T., R.M. Rapp, and M.C. Smith, Space shuttle food system. Food Technol., 31,
40-45, 1977.

Michel, E.L, J.A. Rummel, C.F. Sawin, M.C. Buderer, and J.D. Lem, Results of Skylab medical
experiment M 171 — metabolic activity, in Biomedical Results from Skylab, R.S. Johnston,
and LF. Dietlein, (Eds.) (NASA SP-377), 1977, 372-387.

Rambaut, P.C. and M.C. Smith, Nutrition support of space shuttle crews, Nutr. Today, 12,
6-11 and 28-30, 1977.

Rambaut, P.C., M.C. Smith, C.S. Leach, G.O. Whedon, and J. Reid, Nutrition and responses
to zero gravity. Federation Proceedings, 36, 1678—1682, 1977.

Vogel, J.M., M.W. Whittle, M.C. Smith, and P.C. Rambaut, Bone mineral measurement —
experiment M 078, in Biomedical Results from Skylab, R.S. Johnston, and L.F. Dietlein,
(Eds.) (NASA SP-377) 1977, 183-190.

Whedon, G.O., L. Lutwak, P.C. Rambaut, M.W. Whittle, M.C. Smith, J. Reid, C. Leach,
C.R. Stadler, and D.D. Sanford, Mineral and nitrogen metabolic studies — experiment
M 071, in Biomedical Results from Skylab, R.S. Johnston, and L.F. Dietlein, (Eds.) (NASA
SP-377), 1977, 164-174.

1978

Heidelbaugh, N.D., Space food systems in Encyclopedia of Food Science, M.S. Peterson, and
A.H. Johnson (Eds.), the AVI Pub. Co., Westport, Conn., 1978, 700—702.

TABLE A-

Chicken end gravy 34.2 ± .68 Chicken 50, dehydrated chicken Cook, dice and freeze dry chicken,
(Mend) gravy 50. prepare and freeze dry gravy, com¬

bine dry ingredients.

III

111

III

e.n

l€ al

It i &

^ -Q « ® O «

I e § * -O n

M 5 1

•H

Turkey 90 ± 10 Turkey breast marinated in a curing Cure breasts overnight, smoke

solution of water, salt, sodium in smokehouse, bake to 87 ± 3**C,

tripolyphosphate and curing salts. slice, package under vacuum, freeze

to -40 ± 5 ^C, irradiate, dose
- 37 to 42 kJ/kg (3.7 to 4.3 M rad).

FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED ON US SPACE FLIGHT MENUS (eont'd)

“I

■m-

Starch and chicken flavoring. sherry and flavoring, freeze,

freeze dry, comminute.

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FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED ON US SPACE FLIGHT MENUS (oont'd)

I toeitfiin.

FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED ON US SPACE FLIGHT MENUS (corn'd)

TABLE A-

C$k0, coffee 64.0 ± 6.0 Dough 69, raisins 14, cinnarrran* Bake product, freeze.

sugar filling 9, cinnamon topping 8.

FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED

vitamin D, vitamin B] 2 and BHT) 62.
nonfat dry milk 35. sugar.

FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED ON US SPACE FLIGHT MENUS (cont'd)

apricot vegetable fat. freeze-dried apricots coating.

(14%), citr ic acid, lecithin.

Coating: zein, acetylated mono*
glycerides, citric acid, BHA, BHT.

TABLE A-

breakfktt 62, nonfat dry milk 38.

FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED ON US SPACE FLIGHT MENUS (cont'di

FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED ON US SPACE FLIGHT MENUS (cont'd)

FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLEMENTS INCLUDED ON US SPACE FLIGHT MENUS (cant'd)

Entran
Bits Size

Bacon square or wafer
Bacon and egg bite
Barbecued beef bite
Beef bite
Beef stew bite
Chicken bite, creamed
Turkey bite

Rehydratable

Beef and gravy
Beef and vegetables (regular)
Beef and vegetables (textured)
Beef hash (regular)

Beef hash (blend)

Beef patties

Beef pot roast (regular)

Beef pot roast (textured)

Beef stew (military formula)
Canadian bacon and applesauce
Chicken and gravy
Chicken and rice
Chicken and vegetable
Chicken salad

Chicken stew (military formula)

Eggs, scrambled

Macaroni and cheese

Pork and escalloped potatoes

Salmon salad

Sausage patties

Shrimp cocktail

Spaghetti and meat sauce

Tuna salad

Veal and barbecue sauce

Thermostabilized

Beef and gravy

Beef and potatoes

Beef slices and barbecue sauce

Beefsteak

Chicken ala king

Chili with meat

Frankfurters

Index of Space Foods tfrom Appendix)

Ham and potatoes

Hamburger with gravy

Ham slices

Hot dogs in tomato sauce

Meatballs in barbecue sauce

Salmon

Sandwidt spreads: Tuna

Ham

Chicken salad

Tuna in water

53,54

Turkey in gravy

Natural Form

Beef, dried sliced

Beef jerkey

Cheese slice

Irradiated

Beefsteak

Corned beef

Ham

56,57

Turkey, smoked

Frozen

57,58

Beef, prime rib

Filet mignon

Lobster newburg

58,59

Pork loin 2/dressing

Soups— Rehydratable

Cream of chicken

Cream of tomato

Com chowder

Lobster bisque

Pea

Potato

Romaine

Turkey-rice

Seafood (crab) mushroom

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Fruits and Vagatablas
Rahydratabla

Natural Form

Applesauce

Breed (cheese, rye or white)

Asparagus

Breakfast roll

Beans, green

Crackers, biscuits

Cranberry — applesauce

Crackers, Cheddar

Cranberry - orange

Com. cream style

Thermostabilized

Fruit cocktail

Peaches

Bread, white

Peach ambrosia with pecans

Pears

Frozen

Peas, compressed

Peas, creamed

(Sake, coffee

Potatoes, mashed

Roll, prebuttered

Potatoes, mashed sweet

Potato pattie

Oaraals

Potato salad

Spinach bar (compressed)

Bite Size

Strawberries

Apricot cereal cube

Intermedtate Moisturo

Orange (or lemon flav caraal

bar

Apricots

Strawberry cereal

Peaches

Pears

RahydrataMe

Thermostabilized

Bran flakes

Com flakes, sugar coated

Applesauce

Granola

Cranberry sauce

Grits

Peaches

Natural cereal (Heartland)

Pears

Special fruit cereal

Pineapple

Raisin Spice caraal

Mixed fruit

Rice Kr^ies

Tomatoes, stewed

Toasted Oat cereal

Bread and Crackars

Spreads

Bite Siza

Cheese spread

Jam

Cheese cracker cube

Peanut butter

Sandwich, beef

Sandwich, cheese

Condiments

Sandwich, chicken

Toast, cinnamon

Catsup

Toast, plain

Mustard

Toasted, bread cube, plain

Toasted bread cube, cinrtamon

flavored

Bite Sie

Rahydretabie

Brownie cube 81

Chocolate cube 81

Coconut cube 81

Cookie cube, sugar 81

Fruit cube, apricot 81

Fruit cube, pineepple 82

Fruit cube, strawberry 82

Fruit cake, date 82

Fruit cake, pineapple 83

Gingerbread, cube 83

Graham cracker, cube 83

Ice cream cake, winilla 84

Peanut cube 84

RehydrataUe

Pudding, apricot 84

Pudding, banana 84

Pudding, butterscotch 84

Pudding, chocolate 84

Tharmostabilizad

Cake, cherry nut 85

Cake, chocolate 85

Fruitcake 85

Pudding, butterscotch 85

Pudding, chocolate 85

Pudding, lemon 86

Pudding, vanilla 86

Baked (natural form)

Brownie, chocolate coated 86

Cookie, butter 86

Cookie, oatmeal, choc coated 87

Cookie, pecan 87

Cookie, shortbread 87

Cookie, vanilla wafer 87

Graham crackers 87

Frozen

Ice cream, vanilla 88

Citrus beverage
Coooa

Coffee (black)

Coffee w/craam and sugar
Coffee w/sugar
Grape drink

Grapefruit juice crystals
Grapefruit drink
Grape punch
Instant breekfost
Lemonade
Orange drink

Orange — grapefruit drink
Orange juice

Orange — pineapple drink
Pineapple — grapefruit drink
StrawtMrry drink
Tea

Tea w/lemon and sugar

Confections, Nuts, Snacks

Almonds
Caramel sticks

Chocolate bar, sweet enriched

Food bar, apple

Food bar, cherry

Food bar, lemon

Hard candy (lemon drops)

Mints

Peanuts, dry roasted

Peanut butter flavored choc ber

Pecans

Starch jelly candy

High Density Bars

Chocolate chip bar — chocolate

raspberry

vanilla

Flake bar, chocolate
raspberry
vanilla

Survival bar

8888888S888S8SS5SS5 S888S88SS88S SSSS8S8

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